Toronto falls behind only Vancouver when it comes to overall dissatisfaction in life. Stats Canada compiled the data from 2009 to 2013 by asking residents to assign a numeric value to their sense of satisfaction.

The scale ranges from 0 to 10, where 0 represents “very dissatisfied” and 10 represents “very satisfied.” The study is based on a pooled sample of almost 340,000 respondents aged 15 or older. Vancouver’s average was 7.808; Toronto’s, 7.818. The Canadian average was 7.973.

Researchers have examined many factors in trying to explain the regional variations in happiness. They include the physical characteristics of geography such as population density, natural beauty, and access to quality infrastructure.

The World Happiness Report 2015 targets income as the most important variable driving life satisfaction. Toronto and Vancouver consistently top the list when it comes to real estate and housing unaffordability.

Researchers also found that those who were married or in good health tended to report more satisfaction in life. They also noted that smaller communities with a population of less than 250,000 were happier. Saguenay, Quebec was ranked the happiest city in Canada with a score of 8.245. It has a population of around 147,000.